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practical advantages

  • 1 practical advantages

    Дипломатический термин: практические успехи

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > practical advantages

  • 2 practical advantages

    Англо-русский дипломатический словарь > practical advantages

  • 3 practical advantages

    English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > practical advantages

  • 4 advantage

    n
    1) преимущество; превосходство
    - score an advantage of smb.
    - win an advantage of smb.
    - get an advantage of smb.
    - obtain an advantage of smb.
    - gain an advantage of smb.
    - get an advantage of smb.
    - obtain an advantage of smb.
    - score an advantage of smb.
    - gain an advantage of smb.
    - win an advantage of smb.
    - have an advantage of smb.
    2) выгода, польза
    - use smth. to one's advantage
    •

    English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > advantage

  • 5 advantage

    n
    2. користь, вигода
    - comparative advantage відносна/ порівняльна перевага
    - particular advantage особлива перевага/ вигода
    - practical advantages практичні вигоди/ переваги
    - solid advantages значні вигоди
    - substantial advantage значна перевага
    - tangible advantage реальна/ відчутна перевага
    - to give an advantage надати перевагу
    - to grant an advantage надати перевагу
    - to have an advantage of/ over smbd. опинитися в кращому положенні, ніж будь-хто; мати перевагу над ким-небудь
    - to negotiate away the existing advantage відмовитися від існуючих переваг
    - to take advantage of the opportunity скористатися можливістю
    - to withdraw advantages позбавляти переваг
    - to the best advantage найкращим/ найвигіднішим чином

    English-Ukrainian diplomatic dictionary > advantage

  • 6 практичность

    жен. easement, practicality, practicalness
    практичн|ость - ж. practicality;
    ~ ткани the practical advantages of a fabric;
    ~ый practical;
    ~ый человек practical person;
    ~ый цвет practical color.

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > практичность

  • 7 cancel out

    (to undo the effect of: We don't want our profits to be cancelled out by extra expenses.) compensar, contrarrestar, anular
    cancel out (An emotion, a benefit)
    expr.
    • neutralizar (Un efecto, una ventaja) expr.
    v + o + adv, v + adv + o
    a) ( Math) anular
    b) ( offset) \<\<deficit/loss\>\> compensar; \<\<debt\>\> cancelar
    1.
    VT + ADV (Math) anular; (fig) contrarrestar, compensar

    they cancel each other out — (Math) se anulan mutuamente; (fig) se contrarrestan, una cosa compensa la otra

    2.
    VI + ADV (Math) anularse
    * * *
    v + o + adv, v + adv + o
    a) ( Math) anular
    b) ( offset) \<\<deficit/loss\>\> compensar; \<\<debt\>\> cancelar

    English-spanish dictionary > cancel out

  • 8 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance

       The world's oldest diplomatic connection and alliance, an enduring arrangement between two very different nations and peoples, with important practical consequences in the domestic and foreign affairs of both Great Britain (England before 1707) and Portugal. The history of this remarkable alliance, which has had commercial and trade, political, foreign policy, cultural, and imperial aspects, can be outlined in part with a list of the main alliance treaties after the first treaty of commerce and friendship signed between the monarchs of England and Portugal in 1373. This was followed in 1386 by the Treaty of Windsor; then in 1654, 1661, 1703, the Methuen Treaty; and in 1810 and 1899 another treaty also signed at Windsor.
       Common interests in the defense of the nation and its overseas empire (in the case of Portugal, after 1415; in the case of England, after 1650) were partly based on characteristics and common enemies both countries shared. Even in the late Middle Ages, England and Portugal faced common enemies: large continental countries that threatened the interests and sovereignty of both, especially France and Spain. In this sense, the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance has always been a defensive alliance in which each ally would assist the other when necessary against its enemies. In the case of Portugal, that enemy invariably was Spain (or component states thereof, such as Castile and Leon) and sometimes France (i.e., when Napoleon's armies invaded and conquered Portugal as of late 1807). In the case of England, that foe was often France and sometimes Spain as well.
       Beginning in the late 14th century, England and Portugal forged this unusual relationship, formalized with several treaties that came into direct use during a series of dynastic, imperial, naval, and commercial conflicts between 1373 and 1961, the historic period when the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance had its most practical political significance. The relative world power and importance of each ally has varied over the centuries. During the period 1373-1580, the allies were similar in respective ranking in European affairs, and during the period 1480-1550, if anything, Portugal was a greater world power with a more important navy than England. During 1580-1810, Portugal fell to the status of a third-rank European power and, during 1810-1914, England was perhaps the premier world power. During 1914-61, England's world position slipped while Portugal made a slow recovery but remained a third- or fourth-rank power.
       The commercial elements of the alliance have always involved an exchange of goods between two seafaring, maritime peoples with different religions and political systems but complementary economies. The 1703 Methuen Treaty establ ished a trade link that endured for centuries and bore greater advantages for England than for Portugal, although Portugal derived benefits: English woolens for Portuguese wines, especially port, other agricultural produce, and fish. Since the signing of the Methuen Treaty, there has been a vigorous debate both in politics and in historical scholarship as to how much each nation benefited economically from the arrangement in which Portugal eventually became dependent upon England and the extent to which Portugal became a kind of economic colony of Britain during the period from 1703 to 1910.
       There is a vast literature on the Alliance, much of it in Portuguese and by Portuguese writers, which is one expression of the development of modern Portuguese nationalism. During the most active phase of the alliance, from 1650 to 1945, there is no doubt but that the core of the mutual interests of the allies amounted to the proposition that Portugal's independence as a nation in Iberia and the integrity of its overseas empire, the third largest among the colonial powers as of 1914, were defended by England, who in turn benefited from the use by the Royal Navy of Portugal's home and colonial ports in times of war and peace. A curious impact on Portuguese and popular usage had also come about and endured through the impact of dealings with the English allies. The idiom in Portuguese, "é para inglês ver," means literally "it is for the Englishman to see," but figuratively it really means, "it is merely for show."
       The practical defense side of the alliance was effectively dead by the end of World War II, but perhaps the most definitive indication of the end of the political significance of an alliance that still continues in other spheres occurred in December 1961, when the army of the Indian Union invaded Portugal's colonial enclaves in western India, Goa, Damão, and Diu. While both nations were now North Atlantic Treaty Organization allies, their interests clashed when it came to imperial and Commonwealth conflicts and policies. Portugal asked Britain for military assistance in the use of British bases against the army of Britain's largest former colony, India. But Portugal was, in effect, refused assistance by her oldest ally. If the alliance continues into the 21st century, its essence is historical, nostalgic, commercial, and cultural.
        See also Catherine of Braganza.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Anglo-Portuguese Alliance

  • 9 balance

    balance ['bæləns]
    équilibre ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b) balance ⇒ 1 (c), 1 (f) contrepoids ⇒ 1 (d) solde, reste ⇒ 1 (e) mettre en équilibre ⇒ 2 (a) faire contrepoids àpeser ⇒ 2 (c) équilibrer, balancer ⇒ 2 (d) solder ⇒ 2 (e) être en équilibre ⇒ 3 (a) s'équilibrer ⇒ 3 (b), 3 (c)
    1 noun
    (a) (of person → physical) équilibre m, aplomb m; (→ mental) calme m, équilibre m;
    ∎ she tried to keep her balance elle a essayé de garder l'équilibre ou son équilibre;
    ∎ I lost my balance j'ai perdu l'équilibre ou mon équilibre;
    ∎ off balance (physically, mentally) déséquilibré;
    ∎ he threw me off balance il m'a fait perdre l'équilibre; figurative il m'a décontenancé;
    ∎ figurative to catch sb off balance prendre qn au dépourvu
    (b) (of situation) équilibre m; Art (of painting, sculpture) harmonie f;
    ∎ she tried to strike a balance between the practical and the idealistic elle a essayé de trouver un juste milieu entre la réalité et l'idéal;
    ∎ balance of nature l'équilibre m de la nature;
    ∎ budgetary/economic balance équilibre m budgétaire/économique
    (c) (scales) balance f;
    ∎ to hang in the balance être en jeu;
    ∎ our future hangs or lies in the balance notre avenir est en jeu;
    ∎ everything is still (hanging) in the balance rien n'est encore certain;
    ∎ his remark tipped the balance in his favour sa remarque a fait pencher la balance en sa faveur
    (d) (weight, force) poids m, contrepoids m;
    ∎ the balance of evidence is against him la plupart des preuves lui sont défavorables;
    ∎ she acts as a balance to his impulsiveness elle sert de contrepoids à ou elle contrebalance son impulsivité
    (e) (remainder) solde m, reste m; Commerce & Finance solde m; Accountancy balance f, bilan m;
    ∎ balance in hand solde m en caisse;
    ∎ balance carried forward solde m à reporter; (on balance sheet) report m à nouveau;
    ∎ balance brought forward solde m reporté; (on balance sheet) report m;
    ∎ balance due solde m débiteur ou dû;
    ∎ I'd like to pay the balance of my account j'aimerais solder mon compte
    (f) (on hi-fi, amplifier) balance f
    (a) (put in stable position) mettre en équilibre; (hold in stable position) tenir en équilibre;
    ∎ she balanced the book on her head elle a mis ou posé le livre en équilibre sur sa tête;
    ∎ women balancing pots on their heads des femmes portant des pots sur la tête;
    ∎ Cars to balance the wheels équilibrer les roues
    (b) (act as counterbalance, offset) faire contrepoids à, contrebalancer;
    ∎ we have to balance the right to privacy against the public's right to know nous devons trouver le juste milieu entre le respect de la vie privée et le droit du public à être informé
    (c) (weigh) peser; figurative mettre en balance, comparer;
    ∎ you have to balance its usefulness against the actual cost vous devez mettre en balance ou comparer son utilité et le coût réel;
    (d) Mathematics & Finance (equation, finances) équilibrer, balancer;
    ∎ to balance the budget équilibrer le budget;
    ∎ to balance an adverse budget rétablir un budget déficitaire;
    ∎ to balance the books dresser ou établir le bilan, arrêter les comptes;
    ∎ to balance one's chequebook faire ses comptes
    (e) Finance (settle, pay) régler, solder; (debt) compenser;
    ∎ to balance an account solder un compte
    (a) (remain in stable position) se maintenir en équilibre; (be in stable position) être en équilibre;
    ∎ to balance on one foot se tenir en équilibre sur un pied;
    ∎ she was balanced precariously on the top of a ladder elle était en équilibre instable en haut de l'échelle
    ∎ the weights balance les poids s'équilibrent
    (c) Accountancy & Finance (budget, finances) s'équilibrer, balancer;
    ∎ I can't get the accounts to balance je n'arrive pas à équilibrer les comptes
    à tout prendre, tout bien considéré
    ►► balance beam (in gymnastics) poutre f;
    Finance balance book livre m d'inventaire;
    Building industry balance bridge pont m basculant;
    Economics balance of payments balance f des paiements;
    Economics balance of payments deficit déficit m de la balance des paiements, déficit m extérieur;
    Politics balance of power (in government) balance f ou équilibre m des pouvoirs; (between states) balance f ou équilibre m des forces;
    ∎ Politics he holds the balance of power il peut faire pencher la balance, tout dépend de lui;
    Accountancy balance sheet bilan m;
    ∎ off the balance sheet hors de bilan;
    Accountancy balance sheet auditing contrôle m du bilan;
    Accountancy balance sheet consolidation consolidation f de bilan;
    Accountancy balance sheet item poste m de bilan;
    balance sheet value valeur f bilantielle ou d'inventaire;
    Economics balance of trade balance f commerciale;
    Technology balance weight contrepoids m;
    Technology balance wheel balancier m
    ∎ the advantages and disadvantages balance out les avantages contrebalancent ou compensent les inconvénients;
    ∎ Finance the debits and credits should balance out les débits et les crédits devraient s'équilibrer

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > balance

  • 10 solid

    ['sɔlɪd]
    adj

    The boat struck (bumped) on something solid. — Лодка ударилась обо что-то твёрдое.

    - solid solution
    - something solid
    - nothing solid
    - become solid
    - freeze solid
    - pond is frozen solid
    2) густой, плотный, сытный

    The crowd was less solid. — Толпа была уже не такой плотной.

    - solid layer
    - solid clouds
    - solid honey
    - solid jam
    - solid pudding
    - eat a solid meal
    3) сплошной, целый, непрерывный, однородный, глухой, плотный

    The police linked arms to form a solid line. — Полицейские взялись за руки и образовали сплошную цепь.

    - solid ball
    - solid tyre
    - solid rock
    - solid limp
    - solid background
    - solid yellow line
    - solid wall
    - solid spelling
    - solid line
    - solid block of ice
    - solid piece of wood
    - solid row of houses
    - write this word solid
    - sky is solid blue
    4) неразбавленный, цельный, без примеси

    The house was in solid darkness. — Дом был погружен во мрак. /В доме не было ни огонька.

    - solid delegation
    - solid agreement
    - solid oak desk
    - solid colour
    - solid backgroung
    - solid port
    - take the decision by solid vote
    - made of solid gold
    5) прочный, крепкий, массивный, добротный, сильный, хорошо сделанный
    - solid foundation
    - solid basis
    - solid house
    - solid buildings
    - solid furniture
    - man of solid build
    - be on solid ground
    6) надёжный, солидный
    - solid man
    - solid citizens
    - solid career
    - solid advantages
    - solid firm
    - solid merchant
    - solid business
    - solid relationship and mutual trust
    - solid people with solid faces
    - man of solid sense
    - be solid for peace
    - be solid for smb
    - be solid against smth, smb
    - be solid in smb's favour
    7) веский, убедительный, основательный

    This argument a solid mathematical basis. — Этот аргумент имеет убедительное математическое обоснование.

    - solid considerations
    - have solid grounds for thinking that...
    8) серьёзный, глубокий
    - solid politician
    - solid reading
    - solid study
    - solid knowledge
    - solid piece of writing
    - solid report
    - solid understanding of laws of nature
    - solid book by a solid thinker
    - do some solid work on the problem
    - give some solid advice
    - have solid experience
    - need more solid practical evidence
    - chemistry is a solid subject

    English-Russian combinatory dictionary > solid

  • 11 Brindley, James

    SUBJECT AREA: Canals
    [br]
    b. 1716 Tunstead, Derbyshire, England
    d. 27 September 1772 Turnhurst, Staffordshire, England
    [br]
    English canal engineer.
    [br]
    Born in a remote area and with no material advantages, Brindley followed casual rural labouring occupations until 1733, when he became apprenticed to Abraham Bennett of Macclesfield, a wheelwright and millwright. Though lacking basic education in reading and writing, he demonstrated his ability, partly through his photographic memory, to solve practical problems. This established his reputation, and after Bennett's death in 1742 he set up his own business at Leek as a millwright. His skill led to an invitation to solve the problem of mine drainage at Wet Earth Colliery, Clifton, near Manchester. He tunnelled 600 ft (183 m) through rock to provide a leat for driving a water-powered pump.
    Following work done on a pump on Earl Gower's estate at Trentham, Brindley's name was suggested as the engineer for the proposed canal for which the Duke of Bridge water (Francis Egerton) had obtained an Act in 1759. The Earl and the Duke were brothers-in-law, and the agents for the two estates were, in turn, the Gilbert brothers. The canal, later known as the Bridgewater Canal, was to be constructed to carry coal from the Duke's mines at Worsley into Manchester. Brindley advised on the details of its construction and recommended that it be carried across the river Irwell at Barton by means of an aqueduct. His proposals were accepted, and under his supervision the canal was constructed on a single level and opened in 1761. Brindley had also surveyed for Earl Gower a canal from the Potteries to Liverpool to carry pottery for export, and the signal success of the Bridgewater Canal ensured that the Trent and Mersey Canal would also be built. These undertakings were the start of Brindley's career as a canal engineer, and it was largely from his concepts that the canal system of the Midlands developed, following the natural contours rather than making cuttings and constructing large embankments. His canals are thus winding navigations unlike the later straight waterways, which were much easier to traverse. He also adopted the 7 ft (2.13 m) wide lock as a ruling dimension for all engineering features. For cheapness, he formed his canal tunnels without a towpath, which led to the notorious practice of legging the boats through the tunnels.
    Brindley surveyed a large number of projects and such was his reputation that virtually every proposal was submitted to him for his opinion. Included among these projects were the Staffordshire and Worcestershire, the Rochdale, the Birmingham network, the Droitwich, the Coventry and the Oxford canals. Although he was nominally in charge of each contract, much of the work was carried out by his assistants while he rushed from one undertaking to another to ensure that his orders were being carried out. He was nearly 50 when he married Anne Henshall, whose brother was also a canal engineer. His fees and salaries had made him very wealthy. He died in 1772 from a chill sustained when carrying out a survey of the Caldon Canal.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    A.G.Banks and R.B.Schofield, 1968, Brindley at Wet Earth Colliery: An Engineering Study, Newton Abbot: David \& Charles.
    S.E.Buckley, 1948, James Brindley, London: Harrap.
    JHB

    Biographical history of technology > Brindley, James

  • 12 Ferranti, Sebastian Ziani de

    [br]
    b. 9 April 1864 Liverpool, England
    d. 13 January 1930 Zurich, Switzerland
    [br]
    English manufacturing engineer and inventor, a pioneer and early advocate of high-voltage alternating-current electric-power systems.
    [br]
    Ferranti, who had taken an interest in electrical and mechanical devices from an early age, was educated at St Augustine's College in Ramsgate and for a short time attended evening classes at University College, London. Rather than pursue an academic career, Ferranti, who had intense practical interests, found employment in 1881 with the Siemens Company (see Werner von Siemens) in their experimental department. There he had the opportunity to superintend the installation of electric-lighting plants in various parts of the country. Becoming acquainted with Alfred Thomson, an engineer, Ferranti entered into a short-lived partnership with him to manufacture the Ferranti alternator. This generator, with a unique zig-zag armature, had an efficiency exceeding that of all its rivals. Finding that Sir William Thomson had invented a similar machine, Ferranti formed a company with him to combine the inventions and produce the Ferranti- Thomson machine. For this the Hammond Electric Light and Power Company obtained the sole selling rights.
    In 1885 the Grosvenor Gallery Electricity Supply Corporation was having serious problems with its Gaulard and Gibbs series distribution system. Ferranti, when consulted, reviewed the design and recommended transformers connected across constant-potential mains. In the following year, at the age of 22, he was appointed Engineer to the company and introduced the pattern of electricity supply that was eventually adopted universally. Ambitious plans by Ferranti for London envisaged the location of a generating station of unprecedented size at Deptford, about eight miles (13 km) from the city, a departure from the previous practice of placing stations within the area to be supplied. For this venture the London Electricity Supply Corporation was formed. Ferranti's bold decision to bring the supply from Deptford at the hitherto unheard-of pressure of 10,000 volts required him to design suitable cables, transformers and generators. Ferranti planned generators with 10,000 hp (7,460 kW)engines, but these were abandoned at an advanced stage of construction. Financial difficulties were caused in part when a Board of Trade enquiry in 1889 reduced the area that the company was able to supply. In spite of this adverse situation the enterprise continued on a reduced scale. Leaving the London Electricity Supply Corporation in 1892, Ferranti again started his own business, manufacturing electrical plant. He conceived the use of wax-impregnated paper-insulated cables for high voltages, which formed a landmark in the history of cable development. This method of flexible-cable manufacture was used almost exclusively until synthetic materials became available. In 1892 Ferranti obtained a patent which set out the advantages to be gained by adopting sector-shaped conductors in multi-core cables. This was to be fundamental to the future design and development of such cables.
    A total of 176 patents were taken out by S.Z. de Ferranti. His varied and numerous inventions included a successful mercury-motor energy meter and improvements to textile-yarn produc-tion. A transmission-line phenomenon where the open-circuit voltage at the receiving end of a long line is greater than the sending voltage was named the Ferranti Effect after him.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1927. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1910 and 1911. Institution of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1924.
    Bibliography
    18 July 1882, British patent no. 3,419 (Ferranti's first alternator).
    13 December 1892, British patent no. 22,923 (shaped conductors of multi-core cables). 1929, "Electricity in the service of man", Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 67: 125–30.
    Further Reading
    G.Z.de Ferranti and R. Ince, 1934, The Life and Letters of Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti, London.
    A.Ridding, 1964, S.Z.de Ferranti. Pioneer of Electric Power, London: Science Museum and HMSO (a concise biography).
    R.H.Parsons, 1939, Early Days of the Power Station Industry, Cambridge, pp. 21–41.
    GW

    Biographical history of technology > Ferranti, Sebastian Ziani de

  • 13 Garforth, William Edward

    [br]
    b. 1845 Dukinfield, Cheshire, England
    d. 1 October 1921 Pontefract, Yorkshire, England
    [br]
    English colliery manager, pioneer in machine-holing and the safety of mines.
    [br]
    After Menzies conceived his idea of breaking off coal with machines in 1761, many inventors subsequently followed his proposals through into the practice of underground working. More than one century later, Garforth became one of the principal pioneers of machine-holing combined with the longwall method of working in order to reduce production costs and increase the yield of coal. Having been appointed agent to Pope \& Pearson's Collieries, West Yorkshire, in 1879, of which company he later became Managing Director and Chairman, he gathered a great deal of experience with different methods of cutting coal. The first disc machine was exhibited in London as early as 1851, and ten years later a pick machine was invented. In 1893 he introduced an improved type of deep undercutting machine, his "diamond" disc coal-cutter, driven by compressed air, which also became popular on the European continent.
    Besides the considerable economic advantages it created, the use of machinery for mining coal increased the safety of working in hard and thin seams. The improvement of safety in mining technology was always his primary concern, and as a result of his inventions and his many publications he became the leading figure in the British coal mining industry at the beginning of the twentieth century; safety lamps still carry his name. In 1885 he invented a firedamp detector, and following a severe explosion in 1886 he concentrated on coal-dust experiments. From the information he obtained of the effect of stone-dust on a coal-dust explosion he proposed the stone-dust remedy to prevent explosions of coal-dust. As a result of discussions which lasted for decades and after he had been entrusted with the job of conducting the British coal-dust experiments, in 1921 an Act made it compulsory in all mines which were not naturally wet throughout to treat all roads with incombustible dust so as to ensure that the dust always consisted of a mixture containing not more than 50 per cent combustible matter. In 1901 Garforth erected a surface gallery which represented the damaged roadways of a mine and could be filled with noxious fumes to test self-contained breathing apparata. This gallery formed the model from which all the rescue-stations existing nowadays have been developed.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1914. LLD Universities of Birmingham and Leeds 1912. President, Midland Institute 1892–4. President, The Institution of Mining Engineers 1911–14. President, Mining Association of Great Britain 1907–8. Chairman, Standing Committee on Mining, Advisory Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Fellow of the Geological Society of London. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers Greenwell Silver Medal 1907. Royal Society of Arts Fothergill Gold Medal 1910. Medal of the Institution of Mining Engineers 1914.
    Bibliography
    1901–2, "The application of coal-cutting machines to deep mining", Transactions of the Federated Institute of Mining Engineers 23: 312–45.
    1905–6, "A new apparatus for rescue-work in mines", Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers 31:625–57.
    1902, "British Coal-dust Experiments". Paper communicated to the International Congress on Mining, Metallurgy, Applied Mechanics and Practical Geology, Dusseldorf.
    Further Reading
    Garforth's name is frequently mentioned in connection with coal-holing, but his outstanding achievements in improving safety in mines are only described in W.D.Lloyd, 1921, "Memoir", Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers 62:203–5.
    WK

    Biographical history of technology > Garforth, William Edward

  • 14 Hall, Joseph

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 1789
    d. 1862
    [br]
    English ironmaker who invented the wet puddling process.
    [br]
    Hall was a practical man with no theoretical background: his active years were spent at Bloomfield Ironworks, Tipton, Staffordshire. Around 1816 he began experimenting in the production of wrought iron. At that time, blast-furnace or cast iron was converted to wrought iron by the dry puddling process invented by Henry Cort in 1784. In this process, the iron was decarburized (i.e. had its carbon removed) by heating it in a current of air in a furnace with a sand bed. Some of the iron combined with the silica in the sand to form a slag, however, so that no less than 2 tons of cast iron were needed to produce 1 ton of wrought. Hall found that if bosh cinder was charged into the furnace, a vigorous reaction occurred in which the cast iron was converted much more quickly than before, to produce better quality wrought iron, a ton of which could be formed by no more than 21 cwt (1,067 kg) of cast iron. Because of the boiling action, the process came to be known as pig boiling. Bosh cinder, essentially iron oxide, was formed in the water troughs or boshes in which workers cooled their tools used in puddling and reacted with the carbon in the cast iron. The advantages of pig boiling over dry puddling were striking enough for the process to be widely used by the late 1820s. By mid-century it was virtually the only process used for producing wrought iron, an essential material for mechanical and civil engineering during the Industrial Revolution. Hall reckoned that if he had patented his invention he would have "made a million". As luck would have it, the process that he did patent in 1838 left his finances unchanged: this was for the roasting of cinder for use as the base of the puddling furnace, providing better protection than the bosh cinder for the iron plates that formed the base.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1857, The Iron Question Considered in Connection with Theory, Practice and Experience with Special Reference to the Bessemer Process, London.
    Further Reading
    J.Percy, 1864, Metallurgy. Iron and Steel, London, pp. 670 ff. W.K.V.Gale, Iron and Steel, London: Longmans, pp. 46–50.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Hall, Joseph

  • 15 Stevens, John

    [br]
    b. 1749 New York, New York, USA
    d. 6 March 1838 Hoboken, New Jersey, USA
    [br]
    American pioneer of steamboats and railways.
    [br]
    Stevens, a wealthy landowner with an estate at Hoboken on the Hudson River, had his attention drawn to the steamboat of John Fitch in 1786, and thenceforth devoted much of his time and fortune to developing steamboats and mechanical transport. He also had political influence and it was at his instance that Congress in 1790 passed an Act establishing the first patent laws in the USA. The following year Stevens was one of the first recipients of a US patent. This referred to multi-tubular boilers, of both watertube and firetube types, and antedated by many years the work of both Henry Booth and Marc Seguin on the latter.
    A steamboat built in 1798 by John Stevens, Nicholas J.Roosevelt and Stevens's brother-in-law, Robert R.Livingston, in association was unsuccessful, nor was Stevens satisfied with a boat built in 1802 in which a simple rotary steam-en-gine was mounted on the same shaft as a screw propeller. However, although others had experimented earlier with screw propellers, when John Stevens had the Little Juliana built in 1804 he produced the first practical screw steamboat. Steam at 50 psi (3.5 kg/cm2) pressure was supplied by a watertube boiler to a single-cylinder engine which drove two contra-rotating shafts, upon each of which was mounted a screw propeller. This little boat, less than 25 ft (7.6 m) long, was taken backwards and forwards across the Hudson River by two of Stevens's sons, one of whom, R.L. Stevens, was to help his father with many subsequent experiments. The boat, however, was ahead of its time, and steamships were to be driven by paddle wheels until the late 1830s.
    In 1807 John Stevens declined an invitation to join with Robert Fulton and Robert R.Living-ston in their development work, which culminated in successful operation of the PS Clermont that summer; in 1808, however, he launched his own paddle steamer, the Phoenix. But Fulton and Livingston had obtained an effective monopoly of steamer operation on the Hudson and, unable to reach agreement with them, Stevens sent Phoenix to Philadelphia to operate on the Delaware River. The intervening voyage over 150 miles (240 km) of open sea made Phoenix the first ocean-going steamer.
    From about 1810 John Stevens turned his attention to the possibilities of railways. He was at first considered a visionary, but in 1815, at his instance, the New Jersey Assembly created a company to build a railway between the Delaware and Raritan Rivers. It was the first railway charter granted in the USA, although the line it authorized remained unbuilt. To demonstrate the feasibility of the steam locomotive, Stevens built an experimental locomotive in 1825, at the age of 76. With flangeless wheels, guide rollers and rack-and-pinion drive, it ran on a circular track at his Hoboken home; it was the first steam locomotive to be built in America.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1812, Documents Tending to Prove the Superior Advantages of Rail-ways and Steam-carriages over Canal Navigation.
    He took out patents relating to steam-engines in the USA in 1791, 1803, and 1810, and in England, through his son John Cox Stevens, in 1805.
    Further Reading
    H.P.Spratt, 1958, The Birth of the Steamboat, Charles Griffin (provides technical details of Stevens's boats).
    J.T.Flexner, 1978, Steamboats Come True, Boston: Little, Brown (describes his work in relation to that of other steamboat pioneers).
    J.R.Stover, 1961, American Railroads, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
    Transactions of the Newcomen Society (1927) 7: 114 (discusses tubular boilers).
    J.R.Day and B.G.Wilson, 1957, Unusual Railways, F.Muller (discusses Stevens's locomotive).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Stevens, John

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